Introduction

Where is Nubia?

Nubia is located in Northeastern Africa within the political boundaries of modern Sudan.

Alternative Names for Nubia:

Three terms were used in ancient sources to refer to the land of ancient Nubians; these are Ethiopia, Kush, and recently Sudan.

Who are the Nubians?

The ancient Nubians/Kushites are the ancestors of modern North Sudanese people. According to the Biblical Table of Nations, the ancient Nubians are the descendants of Ham, the son of Noah. According to the system of linguistic classification, the modern Nubian language is identified as part of the Eastern Sudanic language group. The classification of the ancient Nubian language is not determined and is still debated.

The ancient Nubians practiced agriculture along the Nile valley, building one of the very early world civilizations. On the eastern and western deserts of the Nile, certain Nubian groups adopted nomadic lifestyles together with subsistent agriculture. The nomads of Eastern Sudan were known to the ancient Egyptians as the "Medjay-Nubians", to the Romans as the "Blemmies", and later to the Arabs as the "Beja". Nubian nomads also lived and herded in the western deserts of Sudan, side by side, with the "Libyans". After the Arab migrations into Sudan, following the Arab invasions of the fourteenth century CE, many Arabs settled and intermarried with the local population. As most of the immigrants were men, and since Arabs follow a patreliniar tradition (i.e., the children take the identity of their fathers), most Sudanese today define themselves as Arabs.

However, a minority did not intermarry with the Arabs and preserved a Nubian identity. This resulted in an ethnic division of Arab identity and Nubian identity. Intermarriages with other foreigners took place at different times and in other parts of Sudan, which caused the Nubian identity to wither greatly. For example, in Western Sudan, few of the ancient Nubian nomads, who inhabited those regions since ancient times, had intermixed with West- African immigrants from the Sub-Sahara, as well as with Arab settlers.

Today, the language and culture of the bulk of Sudanese people is obviously an Arabic one. Yet, the physical features of today Sudanese proved to be mainly native. The Anthropological studies of mummies from ancient Nubia and the sharp and clear colored drawings of people found inside Nubian burials that go back as far as 3000 years, prove that these ancient Nubians looked typically like the modern people of North Sudan with their dark-red complexion and curly or wavy hair.

Alternative Names for Nubia

Three terms for ancient Nubia are used in ancient sources; these are Ethiopia, Kush, and recently Sudan

Ethiopia:

In Biblical and Hellenistic sources, the region of Nubia is named Ethiopia and is spelled, in some instances Aethiopia. Contemprary historians misreferenced the land of ancient Ethiopia to the modern Republic of Ethiopia. Recent researches and careful examination of ancient sources indicated the actual location of ancient Ethiopia to be within the political boundries of the modern Republic of Sudan.

Kush:

The Ancient Nubians referred to their land as Kash of which the name Kush has descended. The name Kush, as opposed to Ethiopia, is found in some Biblical sources and sometimes is spelled as Cush.

Nubia:

Papyrus, the main plant that grows in the vegetation mass of the Sudd (Sudan).

It must be noted that there is a distinction between the modern and ancient Nubians. The name Nubia, which is widely used to designate the people of Kush, originated from the Nobatians or Noba. The latter were a Nilo-Saharan people who dominated the Kushite kingdom beginning in the third century CE. Since Nubia was a source of gold to the ancient Egyptians, some historians speculate that the term may have originated from the Egyptian word Nub meaning gold.

Sudan:

The original term Sudd, from which the modern term Sudan is derived, refers to a vast expanse of floating water plants or swamps. The earliest mention of the word Sudd in reference to modern Sudan appear in the writings of Seneca, who recorded an expedition sent by the Roman Emperor Nero to central Sudan. Later in history, Arab writers, unaware of the origin of the word Sudan, interpreted the term as being derived from the Arabic word Soud, meaning Blacks.

Basics of Kushite Religion

The oldest evidence of religion in Sudan may be traced back to around 6000 BC (Khartoum Paleolithic). Funirary traditions encompassing the positioning of the deceased in burials, grave items, as well as a variety of other indicators on religious rites and rituals, provide valuable insights on the religion of the Kushites. Nevertheless, the material finds for Kush are too limited to allow scholars to make solid conclusions on the theology of the culture.

The Story of Creation:

Bull figurines. C-Group. From Aniba. Originally courtesy of the Ernstvon Sieglin-Expedition and the Leipzig, Ägyptisches Museum. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile.

According to the beliefs of the Kushites, before creation, the world was all covered with water.¹ Then a mound of earth rose out of the water. On top of this mound, Atum the first god on earth, was born. Atum then gave birth to Shu, the first man on earth, and Tefnut, the first woman goddess. Shu and Tefnu married and gave birth to Geb (the god of Earth) and Nut (god of the Skies). Geb and Nut then were responsible for giving birth to the most important gods in Kush; Osiris (god of the pharaohs), Seth (god of devastation), Isis (god of motherhood), and Nephthys (protector of the dead). Atum signified the concept of creation. Atum was also believed to have created the heavens and earth. He was portrayed as an old man and sometimes with a ram head in connection to Amon.

Re was the most publicly worshiped form of Atum, though the cult emerged as a universal god. The symbol of Re is a sun disk, which is found drawn on chapels of pyramids as well as on temples.

Jebel Barkal:

Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile.

Jebel Barkal, in Arabic meaning the Holly Mountain, is located in Napata the capital of Kush. Both, the Kushites and the Egyptians believed that Jebel-Barkal was the site where life on earth has started. Thus, this mountain functioned, throughout history, as the center of religious life in Kush. There, numerous temples had been constructed, including the Amon temple where the major religious and political ceremonies took place inlcuding the annotation of pharaohs. During religious festivals, these temples would have gotten crowded with pilgrims who traveled from distant places to pay homage to the deities.

Ma'at:

Ma'at is the concept of order and righteousness that was required of rulers to adhere to, and judge by. The concept shaped Kushite politics and played a role similar to the constitution. According to Ma'at, however, the priests had the right to decide whether a king was ruling properly or not. If they decided that a ruler was inconsistent with the Ma'at doctrine, they could process an order that he or she commit a suicide.

The system of Ma'at, however, had also helped to preserve a sense of order and morality among the common people. Opposite to Ma'at was the God Seth, who was believed to cause disorder and challenge moral behavior igniting evil acts. Yet, in the religious rituals, Seth was not necissarily evil. He had an important role to play in accomplishing balance within Maat. This concept remained the main doctrine in Kush throughout its pagan history.

Amon: Statue of the God Amon. From Gebel Barkal. Courtesy of the Harvard University-MFA Boston Expedition and the Khartoum National Museum. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. Material items found at the Deffufa temple in Kerma (built around 1600 BC) helped scholars understand the origins of Kushite belief systems. There, statues of Amon, the ram-headed the creator god, were clearly labeled and sculptured. At a later date, this cult was worshiped in Thebes and became the most prominent god in ancient Egypt. Throughout the history of Nubia, Amon remained the chief deity, which greatly shaped the order in which the Kushite pharaohs ruled. One inscription states that King Tanwetamany attacked the Assyrians in Lower Egypt as a response to a vision that he saw in sleep that Amon assured his success. Again, when Tanwetamani withdrew his forces from Lower Egypt, Herodotus tells us that the King's action was a result of a dream, in which God Amon told him to withdraw. The Nubians believed that the priests had their spiritual ways to communicate with God Amon in order to consult with him on the election of the righteous king from among the candidate family members. At Amon Temple in Napata, in front of the cult of Amon in the holly sanctuary of the temple, the chosen Kushite king was anointed and declared pharaoh.2

• ^{1 For example see: "Nubian/Egyptian Gods and Godesses," DigNubia, Education Development Center, Inc.}
• ^{2 E. A. W. Budge, Gods of the Egyptians Part 2: Studies in Egyptian Mythology (Kessinger Publishing, 2003) 40, Association for the Study of Northwest Semitic Languages in South Africa, University of Stellenbosch Dept. of Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages (Dept. of Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Univ. of Stellenbosch, 2001), and E. A.W. Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (Courier Dover Publications, 1973) 244-6.}

Amon

Amulet of Amon. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile.

God of the two lands, Nubia and Egypt, and Lord of all the Gods Amon (or Amun) was the most prominent God in ancient Sudan. Many, if not most, historians today believe that the worship of Amon had started in Sudan long before Egypt.1 Most of the temples were built in honor of this God, including the largest two temples in Sudan; the Amon temples at Napata and the Amon temple at Meroe. Moreover, Kushite kings frequently prayed to Amon for military victories. Thus was Piankhy’s prayer to God when fighting to conquer of Egypt: “Yoke the war-hourses! Draw up the line of battle! Amon is the god who has sent us! He makes the weak strong, so that a multitude flees before the feeble, and one man takes a thousand captives. Say to Him 'Give us the way that we may fight under the shadow of Thy sword. When the young man whom Thou has sent out make their attack, let multitudes flee before them.'”2

• ^{1 For example see: P. F. Service, The Ancient African Kingdom of Kush (Cultures of the Past) (New York: Benchmark Books, 1998) 35.}
• ^{2 M. A. Murray, The Splendor That Was Egypt: Revised Edition (Courier Dover Publications, 2004) 49.}

Isis

Amulet (shows goddess Isis suckling god Horus as a baby). Gold. From Meroe. Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Khartoum, National Museum. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile.

Goddess of motherhood and fertility Isis, also known to the Kushites as the "great lady of Nubia [Kush]",1 was particularly popular among women. Figurines and amulets bearing her image can be found in both rich and poor graves throughout Sudan. Since child mortality rate was extremely high in ancient times, the cult of Isis attracted mothers worried about the health conditions of their children. The cult of Isis was unique for advocating high moral values of peace and tranquility. Beside being the goddess of motherhood, Isis was a goddess of literacy, and crafts. Her cult was associated with high intellect and wisdom. Kushite pharaohs often claimed Isis to be their heavenly-mother to assume high moral values, good judgment, and integrity. A translation of Meroitic inscription about Isis, reads as follows: "Give noble renewal (Oh Isis) to the new vivification. Give renewal--give (its) erection. Reflect (on) the patron (and) guide good prosperity (on the) good path indeed."2 There is no reason to assume that Isis was originally an Egyptian goddess. Even the cult center of Isis was located at Philae in Lower Nubia. Although part of Nubia, Philae has been a subordinate of Egypt for most of history. However, the local population of Philae has been predominantly of Sudanese extraction, until today. The cult of Isis at Philae received Pilgrims from different parts of the ancient world including Rome, Greece, Syria, and Israel.

• ^{1 P. Garnsey, and C. R. Whittaker, Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History (Cambridge UP, 1978) 37.}
• ^{2 Translation by C. A. Winters of Napata Statue No. 75: 1-2, in C. A. Winters, "Meroitic Religion," Arkamani Sudan Electronic Journal of Archaeology and Anthropology, Oct. 2005, Dec. 2008.}

Apedemac

Drawing of god Apedemac from Musswarrat es Sufra.

God of war and the State God of Meroe Apedemac (or Apedemak) was supposed to resemble a lion with a human body. Since lions (as animals) symbolized the concept of power and strength, Apedemac was considered the war god of Kush. The Kushites believed that Apedemac brought victories to their armies and defeated their enemies. When Kushite pharaohs carried military campaigns, they often claimed the support and companionship of Apedemac. Relieves of this God dominate the temple walls at Meroe and Musawwarat es Sofra as well as in many other temples in Sudan. On a votive tablet found at Musawwarat es Sofra, King Tañyidamani expresses his gratification for the divine support of Apedemak. A translation of the tablet text, reads as follows: 1. You (it is Apedemak who) gives guidance. 2. Revitalize support (for me King Tañyidamani). 3. You guide (me) to satisfaction. 4. (And ) much reverence (for your patron). 5. Give (it) amicably (to me). 6. May (it go forth).

Anubis

Doorjamb (showing Anubis). Sandstone. From Meroe. Excavations of the University of Pisa. Khartoum, National Museum. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. God of mummification. The Kushites believed that Anubis attended the funerary ceremonies of the deceased. Anubis was believed to give life to the spirit of dead. This god also had another important task, which was to weight the heart of the dead against Ma'at (the concept of righteousness and justice). If the heart was heavier than Ma'at, Anibus prevented the dead person from entering the afterlife. If the heart was lighter than Ma'at, Anibus would allow the person to enter. Paintings of this god are present on the walls of, almost, every funerary chamber in Sudan. It is most likely that the Cult of Anubis had originated in Sudan. Egyptian literature commonly associate his cult with Kush. A poetic pyramid text from Egypt reads as follows: "The jackal awakes, the moon arises, The sleepers awake, the men of Nubia [Kush] awake, For the great bittern which came from the Nile, For Anubis, who came from the tamarisk grove; Pure is the mouth of the king…"1

• ^{1 Secondary source: G. van der Leeuw, M. Eliade, D. E. Green, and D. Apostolos-Cappadona, Sacred and Profane Beauty: The Holy in Art, trans. D. E. Green (Oxford UP, 2006) 127.}

Eye of Re

Shield ring (showing the Eye of Re). In Munich. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. Protector of the pharaohs This Goddess was depicted as a uraeus, and was sometimes accompanied with a disk-shape. The Kushites believed that the Eye of Re watched and protected the pharaoh from enemies by spitting flames on them. Thus, to the rulers of Kush, the Eye of Re resembled the concept of being heavenly -protected. Part of an inscription found in a large cliff temple at Napata reads: ".., Eye of Re, Mistress of Heaven, queen of gods, residing in Napata;"1 This Goddess also resembled the pharaohs realm of political control. For example, Kushite pharaohs adorned their crowns with double uraeus motifs, so that one uraeus recognized their rule over Sudan and the other recognized their rule over Egypt. (The Kushites believed that the land of Egypt to be part of Sudan; hence, rejecting the notion of an independent Egypt).

• ^{1 J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt : The twentieth to the twenty-sixth dynasties (The University of Chicago P, 1906).}

Horus

Amulet (showing Horus). Faience. From Kurru. Harvard University-MFA Boston Exhibition. Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. Horus Father of the Pharaohs This God represented the concept of pharaohnicship. He was believed to be the father of all the pharaohs. A new pharaoh would often identify him/her self with Horus. His images appear on, almost, every temple in Sudan. A translation of an offering table inscription from Semna, in Sudan, reads as follows: "Life (to) the Horus divine of forms, he of the Two Ladies Divine of births, the Golden Horus who has come into being, Dual King Khakaura.." (Translation from GEM)1

^{1 Translation from GEM, in A. Bart, "Senusret (III) Khakaure", Ancient Egypt, Dec. 2008}

Sebiumeker

Statue of the God Sebiumeker. Bronze. From Kawa. Oxford University Excavations. Khartoum, National Museum. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. Guardian God Although Sebiumeker was a major god in Sudan, historians do not have a lot of information about how the Kushites perceived him. Since representations of this god are often located near doorways, he is thought to have been some sort of a guardian God. Enormous statues of this God flanked the doorways of the Amon Temple at Tabo and the Eastern Temple at Musawwarat es Sofra. Sebiumeker, along with another unknown, deity are identified at Tabo as "guardians of the temple".1

• ^{1 Secondary source see: L. Török, The Image of the Ordered World in Ancient Nubian Art: The Construction of the Kushite Mind, 800 BC-300 AD (BRILL, 2002) 302.}

Bes

Close up of necklace (showing Bes). Silver. From Meroe. Harvard University-MFA Boston Exhibition. Khartoum, National Museum. Source: Wildung, Dietrich. Sudan: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. House god Bes was a local God in ancient Sudan. This god was thought to protect from evil spirits and bring good luck. Representations of Bes were uncovered in numerous numbers from ordinary and rich graves alike, throughout Sudan. The cult of Bes was associated with pregnancy and the health conditions of newborns. For that reason, Bes was particularly popular among women. His representations can be found in toilet items, such as mirrors, and jewelry. Also, Bes was strongly associated with music, dancing, humor, and sexuality. He is often depicted dancing and/or playing with musical instruments.

http://www.ancientsudan.org/religion_01_basics_kushite_religion.html

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